The GNU Manifesto GNU 宣言 ?! Copyright (C) 1985 Richard M. Stallman (Copying permission notice at the end.) 本文版權由Richard M. Stallman 所有 （版權聲明在文末） What's GNU? Gnu's Not Unix! 什麼是GNU ? GNU 就是不是UNIX ！[Ｇnu's Ｎot Ｕnix ] GNU, which stands for Gnu's Not Unix, is the name for the complete Unix-compatible software system which I am writing so that I can give it away free to everyone who can use it. Several other volunteers are helping me. Contributions of time, money, programs and equipment are greatly needed. GNU,Gnu's Not Unix的縮寫，是我正在寫的一個UNIX相容的軟體系統， 目的在於我能夠自由的把此系統給想要用它的人。有好幾個自願者在幫 我的忙。我們非常的需要（希望）您能夠貢獻時間、金錢、程式或者是 機器。 So far we have an Emacs text editor with Lisp for writing editor commands, a source level debugger, a yacc-compatible parser generator, a linker, and around 35 utilities. A shell (command interpreter) is nearly completed. A new portable optimizing C compiler has compiled itself and may be released ^^^^^^? this year. An initial kernel exists but many more features are needed to emulate Unix. When the kernel and compiler are finished, it will be possible to distribute a GNU system suitable for program development. We ^^^^^ will use @TeX{} as our text formatter, but an nroff is being worked on. We will use the free, portable X window system as well. After this we will add a portable Common Lisp, an Empire game, a spreadsheet, and hundreds of other things, plus on-line documentation. We hope to supply, eventually, everything useful that normally comes with a Unix system, and more. 到目前為止我們已經有了一個使用Lisp語法當命令的編輯器，一個原始 碼層次的除錯器，一個yacc相容的語法分析程式產生器，一個聯結器， 和大概35個公用程式。已經有一個Shell （命令解譯器）幾乎完成了。 一個新的、具可攜性的、有最佳化功能的Ｃ編譯器已經可以自我編譯而 可以在今年發表了。有一個初期的核心但是需要更多的特性以模擬UNIX 。當核心和編譯器都結束後，就能夠傳播一個穩定的，適合程式設計的 GNU 系統。我們會使用@TeX{}當我們的文字排版器，但是也正在撰寫一 個nroff 。我們也會用免費的、具可攜性的Ｘ視窗系統。之後我們會加 一個有可攜性的Common Lisp 、一個Empire遊戲、一個試算表、和其他 各式各樣的東西，以及線上的文件。我們希望最後能提供普通UNIX系統 所能提供的每一件有用的東西，甚至要更多。 GNU will be able to run Unix programs, but will not be identical to Unix. We will make all improvements that are convenient, based on our experience with other operating systems. In particular, we plan to have longer filenames, file version numbers, a crashproof file system, filename ^^^^^^ completion perhaps, terminal-independent display support, and perhaps eventually a Lisp-based window system through which several Lisp programs and ordinary Unix programs can share a screen. Both C and Lisp will be ^^^^^ available as system programming languages. We will try to support UUCP, ^^^^^^^ MIT Chaosnet, and Internet protocols for communication. GNU 一定能夠執行Unix的程式，但是不會和Unix完全一樣。我們會根據 我們在其它作業系統的經驗來改進所有可以增加便利性的地方。特別是 我們計劃擁有較長的檔名、檔案版本號碼、一個不怕當機的檔案系統， 或許還要有自動檔名補全、與終端機無關的顯示支援、可能最後還要有 一個以Lisp為基礎的視窗系統，可以使的好幾個Lisp程式和普通的Unix 程式共同分想一個螢幕。Ｃ和Lisp都將會成為系統的程式語言。我們會 設法支援UUCP，MIT Chaosnet，及Inetnet的通訊協定。 GNU is aimed initially at machines in the 68000/16000 class with virtual memory, because they are the easiest machines to make it run on. The extra ^^^^^^^^^ effort to make it run on smaller machines will be left to someone who wants to use it on them. GNU 最初的目標是有虛擬計憶體，68000/16000 系列的機器，因為這些 機器是最容易讓GNU 跑起來的機器。剩下來讓GNU 能在其它較小的機器 執行的 工作將會留給那些希望能在這些機器上使用GNU 的人。 To avoid horrible confusion, please pronounce the `G' in the word `GNU' when it is the name of this project. 為了避免恐怖的混淆，請各位提到此計劃的名字gnu 時務必要把Ｇ的音 發出來。 Who Am I? 我是誰？ I am Richard Stallman, inventor of the original much-imitated EMACS editor, formerly at the Artificial Intelligence Lab at MIT. I have worked extensively on compilers, editors, debuggers, command interpreters, the Incompatible Timesharing System and the Lisp Machine operating system. I ^^^^^%@#@#!@# pioneered terminal-independent display support in ITS. Since then I have implemented one crashproof file system and two window systems for Lisp machines, and designed a third window system now being implemented; this one will be ported to many systems including use in GNU. [Historical note: The window system project was not completed; GNU now plans to use the X window system.] 我是Richard Stallman，是被很多程式模仿的Emacs 編輯器的原創者， 先前在麻省理工學院人工智慧實驗室任教。我當時在編譯器、編輯器、 除錯器、命令解譯器、Incompatible Timesharing System 〔不相容的 分時作業系統，ITS 〕以及Lisp機器皆有廣泛的研究。從那時起我就發 展了一個不怕當機的檔案系統及兩個Lisp機器的視窗系統而且設計了第 三個現在正在發展中的視窗系統；這一個將會移植到很多包括GNU 在內 的其它系統。〔按：這個視窗系統的計畫並沒有完成；GNU 現在計畫使 用Ｘ視窗系統〕 Why I Must Write GNU 我為什麼一定要寫GNU I consider that the golden rule requires that if I like a program I must share it with other people who like it. Software sellers want to divide the users and conquer them, making each user agree not to share with others. I refuse to break solidarity with other users in this way. I cannot in good conscience sign a nondisclosure agreement or a software license agreement. For years I worked within the Artificial Intelligence Lab to resist such tendencies and other inhospitalities, but eventually they had gone too far: I could not remain in an institution where such things are done for me against my will. 我認為”如果我喜歡一個程式的話，那我就應該分享給其他喜歡這個程 式的人〞這句話是一個金科玉律。軟體商欲個別擊破使用者，使他們同 意不把軟體和他人分享。我拒絕以這種方式破壞使用者的團結。我的良 心使我不會簽一個不開放的合約或是軟體授權合約。我在MIT AI實驗室 對抗這種趨勢和其他的冷淡好幾年，但是最後they have gone so far that.. ^^^^^$@#!@& 我沒辦法待在一個處理事情的方法與我的意願相違的機構。 So that I can continue to use computers without dishonor, I have decided to put together a sufficient body of free software so that I will be able to get along without any software that is not free. I have resigned from the AI lab to deny MIT any legal excuse to prevent me from giving GNU away. 為了我能繼續使用電腦而不蒙羞，我決定要集合一足夠量的自由軟體以 使的我能夠不使用那些沒有自由的軟體。我離開AI實驗室為的就是不給 MIT 有任何法律上的藉口來阻止我把GNU 傳給其他人。 Why GNU Will Be Compatible with Unix 為什麼GNU 將會和UNIX相容 Unix is not my ideal system, but it is not too bad. The essential features of Unix seem to be good ones, and I think I can fill in what Unix lacks without spoiling them. And a system compatible with Unix would be #$%&^^^^^ them =　? convenient for many other people to adopt. UNIX並不是我理想的系統，但是它也不會太差。UNIX重要的特性似乎是 蠻優良的，而且我想我能夠在不犧牲原有特性之下加進Unix缺少的地方 。況且一個和UNIX相容的系統可以讓較多的人容易接受。 How GNU Will Be Available ^^^^^^@#%! GNU 將要如何讓他人取得 GNU is not in the public domain. Everyone will be permitted to modify and redistribute GNU, but no distributor will be allowed to restrict its further redistribution. That is to say, proprietary modifications will not be allowed. I want to make sure that all versions of GNU remain free. GNU 不是公益軟體。我們將會允許每一個人修改及傳播GNU 但是絕不允 許傳播者對他傳播的程式再加進其他的限制。那就是說，不允許將修改 後的程式佔為己有。我希望能確定GNU 所有的版本皆能保持自由。 Why Many Other Programmers Want to Help 為什麼有很多程式設計者願意幫忙 I have found many other programmers who are excited about GNU and want to help. 我發現有很多程式設計者對GNU 感興趣而且願意幫忙 。 Many programmers are unhappy about the commercialization of system software. It may enable them to make more money, but it requires them to feel in conflict with other programmers in general rather than feel as comrades. The fundamental act of friendship among programmers is the sharing of programs; marketing arrangements now typically used essentially ^^^^^ forbid programmers to treat others as friends. The purchaser of software must choose between friendship and obeying the law. Naturally, many decide that friendship is more important. But those who believe in law often do not feel at ease with either choice. They become cynical and think that programming is just a way of making money. 很多程式設計者對系統軟體商業化感到不悅。這可能使他們賺更多的錢 ，但是這使得他們大體上有與其他的程式設計者衝突的感覺而非大家都 是同志的感覺。程式設計者對友誼的最基本表現就是把程式分享出來； 而目前常用的市場計畫基本上禁止程式設計者彼此之間視為朋友。軟體 購買者必須在友誼和守法之間做一選擇。自然地，有很多選擇了友誼比 較重要。但是那些相信法律的人常常沒辦法安心的做下任一選擇。他們 變得憤世忌俗且認為寫程式只不過是賺錢的一種方法而已。 By working on and using GNU rather than proprietary programs, we can be hospitable to everyone and obey the law. In addition, GNU serves as an example to inspire and a banner to rally others to join us in sharing. ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ This can give us a feeling of harmony which is impossible if we use software that is not free. For about half the programmers I talk to, this is an important happiness that money cannot replace. 　　　^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ 透過撰寫及使用GNU 而非私有的程式，我們可以熱情的對待每一個人並 且遵守法律。此外，GNU 更是一個啟發與集結大家和我們一起分享的典 範及號誌。這樣子能夠給我們一種和諧的感覺，這感覺是我們為那些不 自由的軟體工作所不能得到的。大概有一半和我談過得程式設計師認為 這是一個金錢所不能替換的、很重要的快樂。 How You Can Contribute 你能夠如何貢獻 I am asking computer manufacturers for donations of machines and money. I'm asking individuals for donations of programs and work. 我請電腦製造商捐獻機器及金錢。我請個人貢獻程式與精力。 One consequence you can expect if you donate machines is that GNU will run on them at an early date. The machines should be complete, ready to use systems, approved for use in a residential area, and not in need of sophisticated cooling or power. 如果你貢獻機器的話，有一個你可以期待的結果就是GNU 可以早點在你 提供的機器上面執行。機器必須是完整的、馬上可用的系統，可以在住 宅區內使用，而且不須要複雜的冷卻及電力系統。 I have found very many programmers eager to contribute part-time work for GNU. For most projects, such part-time distributed work would be very hard to coordinate; the independently-written parts would not work together. But for the particular task of replacing Unix, this problem is absent. A complete Unix system contains hundreds of utility programs, each of which is documented separately. Most interface specifications are fixed by Unix compatibility. If each contributor can write a compatible replacement for a single Unix utility, and make it work properly in place of the original on a Unix system, then these utilities will work right when put together. Even allowing for Murphy to create a few unexpected problems, assembling these components will be a feasible task. (The kernel will require closer communication and will be worked on by a small, tight group.) 我發現有很多的程式師渴望為GNU 貢獻部份閒暇的精力。對大部分的計 話而言，如此部份的、分散的工作非常難以協調；大家獨立寫的各部份 可能沒辦法合在一起工作。但是就取代Unix的特定任務來說就沒有這個 問題。一個完整的Unix系統包括了上百個工具程式，每一個程式都分別 有所描述。大部分的界面規格都因Unix相容性的緣故而是固定的。如每 一個貢獻者能夠寫一個某個Unix工具的相容替代品，讓它在Unix下能正 確的取代原來程式的工作，那麼這些工具集合在一起時便能正常工作。 甚至允許Murphy製造一些出乎意料的問題，把這些部份組合起來仍事件 可行的工作。（系統核心的工作就需要較密切的溝通，且只有一群緊密 的小組能夠參加） If I get donations of money, I may be able to hire a few people full or part time. The salary won't be high by programmers' standards, but I'm looking for people for whom building community spirit is as important as making money. I view this as a way of enabling dedicated people to devote their full energies to working on GNU by sparing them the need to make a ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^@@@@@^^^^^^^^^ living in another way. 如果有人貢獻金錢，那麼我就能夠請幾個全職或臨時的人。以程式師的 標準來說，這薪水不是很高，但是我要找的是那些認為建立團隊精神和 賺錢一樣重要的人。我認為使奉獻的人能夠全心全力投入GNU 工作的一 種方式就是提供他們謀生的另一種方法 Why All Computer Users Will Benefit 為什麼所有的電腦使用者都會受益 Once GNU is written, everyone will be able to obtain good system software free, just like air. 只要GNU 一寫好，每個人都能夠自由的取得優良的系統軟體，就像空氣一 樣。 This means much more than just saving everyone the price of a Unix license. It means that much wasteful duplication of system programming effort will be avoided. This effort can go instead into advancing the state of the art. 這不只是僅僅省下大家一筆Unix的版權費而已。這更意味著大家可以避 免白白浪費掉重複設計系統的工作。這省下來的力氣可以轉而增進此系 統的技術層次。[ the state of the art. ] Complete system sources will be available to everyone. As a result, a user who needs changes in the system will always be free to make them himself, or hire any available programmer or company to make them for him. Users will no longer be at the mercy of one programmer or company which owns the ^^^^^^^^^^ sources and is in sole position to make changes. 每一個人都能取得完整的程式碼。因此，需要更改系統的使用者總是能 自由的自行修改之，或雇用任何能夠勝任的程式師或公司來替他做這件 事。使用者不在需要看某一個擁有原始碼的程式師或公司的臉色，如果 只有他們想作些更改的話。 Schools will be able to provide a much more educational environment by encouraging all students to study and improve the system code. Harvard's computer lab used to have the policy that no program could be installed on the system if its sources were not on public display, and upheld it by ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^ actually refusing to install certain programs. I was very much inspired by this. 學校將能夠透過鼓勵所有的學生學習及改進程式碼的方式提供更富教育 性的環境。哈佛的電腦實驗室曾經有這樣一個政策：沒有一個不能公開 展示原始碼的程式能被允許安裝到系統裡面，而且拒絕安裝某些程式以 展示貫徹的決心。我從這件事得到不少啟發。 Finally, the overhead of considering who owns the system software and what one is or is not entitled to do with it will be lifted. 最後， [the overhead of] 誰擁有這個系統軟體的顧慮及允許或不允 許對這軟體做什麼事的限制都會解除。 Arrangements to make people pay for using a program, including licensing of copies, always incur a tremendous cost to society through the cumbersome mechanisms necessary to figure out how much (that is, which programs) a person must pay for. And only a police state can force everyone to obey them. Consider a space station where air must be manufactured at great cost: charging each breather per liter of air may be fair, but wearing the metered gas mask all day and all night is intolerable even if everyone can afford to pay the air bill. And the TV cameras everywhere to see if you ever take the mask off are outrageous. It's better to support the air ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ plant with a head tax and chuck the masks. 為了使使用程式者付費，包括授權數量，必須透過累贅的機制來測量使用 者需要為哪個程式付出多少錢，總是使社會付出大量的成本。而且只有警 方能使每個人都遵守之。考慮一個必須用很高的成本製造空氣的太空站： 對每呼吸一升空氣收費可能蠻公平的，但是成天帶著空氣記錄器的口罩是 無法忍受的，即使每個人都有能力付空氣費。而且到處都是監視器檢查你 是否拿掉呼吸罩是一種侮辱。It's better to.................... Copying all or parts of a program is as natural to a programmer as breathing, and as productive. It ought to be as free. ^^^^^^^ ? as productive as breathing? 拷貝大部份或部份的程式對一個程式師而言是和呼吸一樣自然的事。 這應該是自由的。 Some Easily Rebutted Objections to GNU's Goals 一些容易反駁的，對GNU 目標的反對 一些容易反駁的，不贊成GNU 目標的理由 一些容易反駁的，不贊成GNU 理由 一些GNU 的目標容易被誤解的地方 一些GNU 容易被誤解的地方 [我亂翻的! 不曉得怎麼翻$%#$%# : Some objections (to GNU's Goal) that are easily (can be easily) rebutted ?! rebut what? Objections or GNU's goal? ] "Nobody will use it if it is free, because that means they can't rely on any support." "You have to charge for the program to pay for providing the support." 『如果它是免費的話就沒有人會用它，因為這表示 他們沒有任何協助可以依賴。』 『你必須對程式收費，用來支持提供支援所需之費用。』 If people would rather pay for GNU plus service than get GNU free without service, a company to provide just service to people who have obtained GNU free ought to be profitable. 如果有人寧願花錢買有售後服務的GNU 而非免費得到沒有服務的GNU ， 一家專門為那些免費拿到GNU 的人提供服務的公司應該會很賺錢。 We must distinguish between support in the form of real programming work and mere handholding. The former is something one cannot rely on from a ^^^^^^^^^ software vendor. If your problem is not shared by enough people, the vendor will tell you to get lost. 我們必須辨別程式支援和維修支援方式上的不同。前者是軟體公司所不 能依靠的。如果沒有足夠多的人問題和你一樣，軟體公司可能會讓你陷 入無助之地。 If your business needs to be able to rely on support, the only way is to have all the necessary sources and tools. Then you can hire any available person to fix your problem; you are not at the mercy of any individual. With Unix, the price of sources puts this out of consideration for most businesses. With GNU this will be easy. It is still possible for there to be no available competent person, but this problem cannot be blamed on distribution arrangements. GNU does not eliminate all the world's problems, only some of them. 如果你的事業需要倚靠支援，唯一的方法就是準備好一切所需的原始碼 和工具。然後你可以聘請任何一位可以勝任的人來解決你的問題。你不 須任由某人擺佈。就UNIX而言，原始碼的價錢讓大部分的企業無法考慮 這種作法。用GNU 的話這就很容易了。但是還是有可能找不到可以勝任 的人的情況，但是這個問題不能怪罪傳播的方法。GNU 並沒有解決世界 上所有的問題，只是其中的一部份而已。 Meanwhile, the users who know nothing about computers need handholding: ^^^^^^^^^^ doing things for them which they could easily do themselves but don't know how. 同時，對電腦一無所知得使用者須要幫助：為他們做一些他們自己能輕 易做到，但不曉得如何做的事。 Such services could be provided by companies that sell just hand-holding and repair service. If it is true that users would rather spend money and get a product with service, they will also be willing to buy the service having got the product free. The service companies will compete in quality and price; users will not be tied to any particular one. Meanwhile, those of us who don't need the service should be able to use the program without paying for the service. 這樣子的服務可以由專門維修的公司提供。如果使用者真的寧願花錢買 一個有售後服務的軟體，他們也將願意為免費得到的軟體買些服務。這 些服務公司會在品質和價錢上競爭；使用者將不會受限於特定的一加公 司。同時，我們這些不須要服務的人也能夠自由的使用程式而不須要花 錢在服務上。 "You cannot reach many people without advertising, and you must charge for the program to support that." "It's no use advertising a program people can get free." "沒有廣告的話你就沒辦法讓很多人知道你的東西， 而你必須對程式收錢以支持廣告經費。" "廣告一個別人可以免費得到的程式是沒有用的。" There are various forms of free or very cheap publicity that can be used to inform numbers of computer users about something like GNU. But it may be true that one can reach more microcomputer users with advertising. If this is really so, a business which advertises the service of copying and mailing GNU for a fee ought to be successful enough to pay for its advertising and more. This way, only the users who benefit from the ^^^^^^^^^ advertising pay for it. 有多種形式免費的或很便宜的傳播媒介可以用來讓不少的電腦使用者知 道像GNU 之類的事。可是刊登廣告可以觸及更多微電腦的使用者可能是 真的。如果是這樣的話，一個刊登廣告提供拷貝及郵購GNU 的事業應該 可以賺得遠超過它所投資的廣告費。在這種機制下，只有從廣告中獲益 得使用者才須要為之付費。 On the other hand, if many people get GNU from their friends, and such companies don't succeed, this will show that advertising was not really necessary to spread GNU. Why is it that free market advocates don't want to let the free market decide this? 另一方面，如果很多人透過朋友拿到GNU ，而上述的事業沒有成功，這 就顯示了GNU 並不須要借助廣告來傳播。為什麼自由市場得擁護者不想 要讓自由市場決定這件事？ "My company needs a proprietary operating system to get a competitive edge." "我的公司需要一個專屬的作業系統才能夠較有競爭力" GNU will remove operating system software from the realm of competition. You will not be able to get an edge in this area, but neither will your competitors be able to get an edge over you. You and they will compete in other areas, while benefitting mutually in this one. If your business is selling an operating system, you will not like GNU, but that's tough on you. If your business is something else, GNU can save you from being ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ pushed into the expensive business of selling operating systems. ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ GNU 將會把系統軟體移出競爭的領域。你將無法在這方面佔有優勢，但同 樣的你的對手也無法在這方面勝過你。你和他們會在其他方面競爭，而在 這方面互相獲益。如果你的事業就是賣作業系統，你大概不會喜歡GNU ， 不過這會很為難你。如果你的事業是其他方面的話，GNU 可以讓你省下研 發作業系統所需要的昂貴經費。 I would like to see GNU development supported by gifts from many manufacturers and users, reducing the cost to each. 我希望能見到GNU 的發展受到許多製造商及使用者的支持，以減低雙方的 發費。 "Don't programmers deserve a reward for their creativity?" "難道程式師不應該從他的創造力獲得回報嗎？" If anything deserves a reward, it is social contribution. Creativity can be a social contribution, but only in so far as society is free to use the results. If programmers deserve to be rewarded for creating innovative programs, by the same token they deserve to be punished if they restrict the use of these programs. 如果有甚麼事值得回報的話，那非貢獻社會莫數了。創造力可以是一種 對社會的貢獻，但是必須以社會能夠自由使用其結果為限。如果程式師 因寫出創新的程式就應得到報酬的話，同理如果他們對這些程式的使用 設限的話，他們也該受罰。 "Shouldn't a programmer be able to ask for a reward for his creativity?" "難道程式師不能為他的創造力要求報酬嗎？" There is nothing wrong with wanting pay for work, or seeking to maximize one's income, as long as one does not use means that are destructive. But the means customary in the field of software today are based on destruction. 希望工作有薪水拿，或是使自己有最大的收入並沒有什麼不對的，只要 不要用破壞性的手段就可以了。但是在現今軟體領域內常用的手段卻都 是以破壞為依歸的。 Extracting money from users of a program by restricting their use of it is destructive because the restrictions reduce the amount and the ways that the program can be used. This reduces the amount of wealth that humanity ?????????????????????????????????????????????? derives from the program. When there is a deliberate choice to restrict, the harmful consequences are deliberate destruction. 藉著限制一個程式的使用者的使用範圍來獲取金錢是具有破壞性的，因 為那些限制減少了程式的應用範圍。這減少了人類能由此程式所得到的 財富。如果可以任意設定限制的話，其惡果就是任意的破壞。 The reason a good citizen does not use such destructive means to become wealthier is that, if everyone did so, we would all become poorer from the mutual destructiveness. This is Kantian ethics; or, the Golden Rule. Since I do not like the consequences that result if everyone hoards information, I am required to consider it wrong for one to do so. Specifically, the desire to be rewarded for one's creativity does not justify depriving the world in general of all or part of that creativity. "Won't programmers starve?" I could answer that nobody is forced to be a programmer. Most of us cannot manage to get any money for standing on the street and making faces. But we are not, as a result, condemned to spend our lives standing on the street making faces, and starving. We do something else. But that is the wrong answer because it accepts the questioner's implicit assumption: that without ownership of software, programmers cannot possibly be paid a cent. Supposedly it is all or nothing. The real reason programmers will not starve is that it will still be possible for them to get paid for programming; just not paid as much as now. Restricting copying is not the only basis for business in software. It is the most common basis because it brings in the most money. If it were prohibited, or rejected by the customer, software business would move to other bases of organization which are now used less often. There are always numerous ways to organize any kind of business. Probably programming will not be as lucrative on the new basis as it is now. But that is not an argument against the change. It is not considered an injustice that sales clerks make the salaries that they now do. If programmers made the same, that would not be an injustice either. (In practice they would still make considerably more than that.) "Don't people have a right to control how their creativity is used?" "Control over the use of one's ideas" really constitutes control over other people's lives; and it is usually used to make their lives more difficult. People who have studied the issue of intellectual property rights carefully (such as lawyers) say that there is no intrinsic right to intellectual property. The kinds of supposed intellectual property rights that the government recognizes were created by specific acts of legislation for specific purposes. For example, the patent system was established to encourage inventors to disclose the details of their inventions. Its purpose was to help society rather than to help inventors. At the time, the life span of 17 years for a patent was short compared with the rate of advance of the state of the art. Since patents are an issue only among manufacturers, for whom the cost and effort of a license agreement are small compared with setting up production, the patents often do not do much harm. They do not obstruct most individuals who use patented products. The idea of copyright did not exist in ancient times, when authors frequently copied other authors at length in works of non-fiction. This practice was useful, and is the only way many authors' works have survived even in part. The copyright system was created expressly for the purpose of encouraging authorship. In the domain for which it was invented--books, which could be copied economically only on a printing press--it did little harm, and did not obstruct most of the individuals who read the books. All intellectual property rights are just licenses granted by society because it was thought, rightly or wrongly, that society as a whole would benefit by granting them. But in any particular situation, we have to ask: are we really better off granting such license? What kind of act are we licensing a person to do? The case of programs today is very different from that of books a hundred years ago. The fact that the easiest way to copy a program is from one neighbor to another, the fact that a program has both source code and object code which are distinct, and the fact that a program is used rather than read and enjoyed, combine to create a situation in which a person who enforces a copyright is harming society as a whole both materially and spiritually; in which a person should not do so regardless of whether the law enables him to. "Competition makes things get done better." The paradigm of competition is a race: by rewarding the winner, we encourage everyone to run faster. When capitalism really works this way, it does a good job; but its defenders are wrong in assuming it always works this way. If the runners forget why the reward is offered and become intent on winning, no matter how, they may find other strategies--such as, attacking other runners. If the runners get into a fist fight, they will all finish late. Proprietary and secret software is the moral equivalent of runners in a fist fight. Sad to say, the only referee we've got does not seem to object to fights; he just regulates them ("For every ten yards you run, you are allowed one kick."). He really ought to break them up, and penalize runners for even trying to fight. "Won't everyone stop programming without a monetary incentive?" Actually, many people will program with absolutely no monetary incentive. Programming has an irresistible fascination for some people, usually the people who are best at it. There is no shortage of professional musicians who keep at it even though they have no hope of making a living that way. But really this question, though commonly asked, is not appropriate to the situation. Pay for programmers will not disappear, only become less. So the right question is, will anyone program with a reduced monetary incentive? My experience shows that they will. For more than ten years, many of the world's best programmers worked at the Artificial Intelligence Lab for far less money than they could have had anywhere else. They got many kinds of non-monetary rewards: fame and appreciation, for example. And creativity is also fun, a reward in itself. Then most of them left when offered a chance to do the same interesting work for a lot of money. What the facts show is that people will program for reasons other than riches; but if given a chance to make a lot of money as well, they will come to expect and demand it. Low-paying organizations do poorly in competition with high-paying ones, but they do not have to do badly if the high-paying ones are banned. "We need the programmers desperately. If they demand that we stop helping our neighbors, we have to obey." You're never so desperate that you have to obey this sort of demand. Remember: millions for defense, but not a cent for tribute! "Programmers need to make a living somehow." In the short run, this is true. However, there are plenty of ways that programmers could make a living without selling the right to use a program. This way is customary now because it brings programmers and businessmen the most money, not because it is the only way to make a living. It is easy to find other ways if you want to find them. Here are a number of examples. A manufacturer introducing a new computer will pay for the porting of operating systems onto the new hardware. The sale of teaching, hand-holding and maintenance services could also employ programmers. People with new ideas could distribute programs as freeware, asking for donations from satisfied users, or selling hand-holding services. I have met people who are already working this way successfully. Users with related needs can form users' groups, and pay dues. A group would contract with programming companies to write programs that the group's members would like to use. All sorts of development can be funded with a Software Tax: Suppose everyone who buys a computer has to pay x percent of the price as a software tax. The government gives this to an agency like the NSF to spend on software development. But if the computer buyer makes a donation to software development himself, he can take a credit against the tax. He can donate to the project of his own choosing--often, chosen because he hopes to use the results when it is done. He can take a credit for any amount of donation up to the total tax he had to pay. The total tax rate could be decided by a vote of the payers of the tax, weighted according to the amount they will be taxed on. The consequences: * the computer-using community supports software development. * this community decides what level of support is needed. * users who care which projects their share is spent on can choose this for themselves. In the long run, making programs free is a step toward the post-scarcity world, where nobody will have to work very hard just to make a living. People will be free to devote themselves to activities that are fun, such as programming, after spending the necessary ten hours a week on required tasks such as legislation, family counseling, robot repair and asteroid prospecting. There will be no need to be able to make a living from programming. We have already greatly reduced the amount of work that the whole society must do for its actual productivity, but only a little of this has translated itself into leisure for workers because much nonproductive activity is required to accompany productive activity. The main causes of this are bureaucracy and isometric struggles against competition. Free software will greatly reduce these drains in the area of software production. We must do this, in order for technical gains in productivity to translate into less work for us. Copyright (C) 1985 Richard M. Stallman Permission is granted to anyone to make or distribute verbatim copies of this document as received, in any medium, provided that the copyright notice and permission notice are preserved, and that the distributor grants the recipient permission for further redistribution as permitted by this notice. Modified versions may not be made. A much more important factor in the social movement than those already mentioned was the ever-increasing influence of women. This probably stood at the lowest point to which it has ever fallen, during the classic age of Greek life and thought. In the history of Thucydides, so far as it forms a connected series of events, four times only during a period of nearly seventy years does a woman cross the scene. In each instance her apparition only lasts for a moment. In three of the four instances she is a queen or a princess, and belongs either to the half-barbarous kingdoms of northern Hellas or to wholly barbarous Thrace. In the one remaining instance208〞 that of the woman who helps some of the trapped Thebans to make their escape from Plataea〞while her deed of mercy will live for ever, her name is for ever lost.319 But no sooner did philosophy abandon physics for ethics and religion than the importance of those subjects to women was perceived, first by Socrates, and after him by Xenophon and Plato. Women are said to have attended Plato＊s lectures disguised as men. Women formed part of the circle which gathered round Epicurus in his suburban retreat. Others aspired not only to learn but to teach. Ar那t那, the daughter of Aristippus, handed on the Cyrenaic doctrine to her son, the younger Aristippus. Hipparchia, the wife of Crates the Cynic, earned a place among the representatives of his school. But all these were exceptions; some of them belonged to the class of Hetaerae; and philosophy, although it might address itself to them, remained unaffected by their influence. The case was widely different in Rome, where women were far more highly honoured than in Greece;320 and even if the prominent part assigned to them in the legendary history of the city be a proof, among others, of its untrustworthiness, still that such stories should be thought worth inventing and preserving is an indirect proof of the extent to which feminine influence prevailed. With the loss of political liberty, their importance, as always happens at such a conjuncture, was considerably increased. Under a personal government there is far more scope for intrigue than where law is king; and as intriguers women are at least the209 equals of men. Moreover, they profited fully by the levelling tendencies of the age. One great service of the imperial jurisconsults was to remove some of the disabilities under which women formerly suffered. According to the old law, they were placed under male guardianship through their whole life, but this restraint was first reduced to a legal fiction by compelling the guardian to do what they wished, and at last it was entirely abolished. Their powers both of inheritance and bequest were extended; they frequently possessed immense wealth; and their wealth was sometimes expended for purposes of public munificence. Their social freedom seems to have been unlimited, and they formed combinations among themselves which probably served to increase their general influence.321 The old religions of Greece and Italy were essentially oracular. While inculcating the existence of supernatural beings, and prescribing the modes according to which such beings were to be worshipped, they paid most attention to the interpretation of the signs by which either future events in general, or the consequences of particular actions, were supposed to be divinely revealed. Of these intimations, some were given to the whole world, so that he who ran might read, others were reserved for certain favoured localities, and only communicated through the appointed ministers of the god. The Delphic oracle in particular enjoyed an enormous reputation both among Greeks and barbarians for guidance afforded under the latter conditions; and during a considerable period it may even be said to have directed the course of Hellenic civilisation. It was also under this form that supernatural religion suffered most injury from the great intellectual movement which followed the Persian wars. Men who had learned to study the constant sequences of Nature for themselves, and to shape their conduct according to fixed principles of prudence or of justice, either thought it irreverent to trouble the god about questions on which they were competent to form an opinion for themselves, or did not choose to place a well-considered scheme at the mercy of his possibly interested responses. That such a revolution occurred about the middle of the fifth century B.C., seems proved by the great change of tone in reference to this subject which one perceives on passing from Aeschylus to Sophocles. That anyone should question the veracity of an oracle is a supposition which never crosses the mind of the elder dramatist. A knowledge of augury counts among the greatest benefits222 conferred by Prometheus on mankind, and the Titan brings Zeus himself to terms by his acquaintance with the secrets of destiny. Sophocles, on the other hand, evidently has to deal with a sceptical generation, despising prophecies and needing to be warned of the fearful consequences brought about by neglecting their injunctions. The stranger had a pleasant, round face, with eyes that twinkled in spite of the creases around them that showed worry. No wonder he was worried, Sandy thought: having deserted the craft they had foiled in its attempt to get the gems, the man had returned from some short foray to discover his craft replaced by another. ※Thanks,§ Dick retorted, without smiling. When they reached him, in the dying glow of the flashlight Dick trained on a body lying in a heap, they identified the man who had been warned by his gypsy fortune teller to ※look out for a hidden enemy.§ He was lying at full length in the mould and leaves. "But that is sport," she answered carelessly. On the retirement of Townshend, Walpole reigned supreme and without a rival in the Cabinet. Henry Pelham was made Secretary at War; Compton Earl of Wilmington Privy Seal. He left foreign affairs chiefly to Stanhope, now Lord Harrington, and to the Duke of Newcastle, impressing on them by all means to avoid quarrels with foreign Powers, and maintain the blessings of peace. With all the faults of Walpole, this was the praise of his political system, which system, on the meeting of Parliament in the spring of 1731, was violently attacked by Wyndham and Pulteney, on the plea that we were making ruinous treaties, and sacrificing British interests, in order to benefit Hanover, the eternal millstone round the neck of England. Pulteney and Bolingbroke carried the same attack into the pages of The Craftsman, but they failed to move Walpole, or to shake his power. The English Government, instead of treating Wilkes with a dignified indifference, was weak enough to show how deeply it was touched by him, dismissed him from his commission of Colonel of the Buckinghamshire Militia, and treated Lord Temple as an abettor of his, by depriving him of the Lord-Lieutenancy of the same county, and striking his name from the list of Privy Councillors, giving the Lord-Lieutenancy to Dashwood, now Lord Le Despencer. "I tell you what I'll do," said the Deacon, after a little consideration. "I feel as if both Si and you kin stand a little more'n you had yesterday. I'll cook two to-day. We'll send a big cupful over to Capt. McGillicuddy. That'll leave us two for to-morrer. After that we'll have to trust to Providence." "Indeed you won't," said the Surgeon decisively. "You'll go straight home, and stay there until you are well. You won't be fit for duty for at least a month yet, if then. If you went out into camp now you would have a relapse, and be dead inside of a week. The country between here and Chattanooga is dotted with the graves of men who have been sent back to the front too soon." "Adone do wud that〞though you sound more as if you wur in a black temper wud me than as if you pitied me." "Wot about this gal he's married?" "Don't come any further." "Davy, it 'ud be cruel of us to go and leave him." "Insolent priest!" interrupted De Boteler, "do you dare to justify what you have done? Now, by my faith, if you had with proper humility acknowledged your fault and sued for pardon〞pardon you should have had. But now, you leave this castle instantly. I will teach you that De Boteler will yet be master of his own house, and his own vassals. And here I swear (and the baron of Sudley uttered an imprecation) that, for your meddling knavery, no priest or monk shall ever again abide here. If the varlets want to shrieve, they can go to the Abbey; and if they want to hear mass, a priest can come from Winchcombe. But never shall another of your meddling fraternity abide at Sudley while Roland de Boteler is its lord." "My lord," said Edith, in her defence, "this woman has sworn falsely. The medicine I gave was a sovereign remedy, if given as I ordered. Ten drops would have saved the child's life; but the contents of the phial destroyed it. The words I uttered were prayers for the life of the child. My children, and all who know me, can bear witness that I have a custom of asking His blessing upon all I take in hand. I raised my eyes towards heaven, and muttered words; but, my lord, they were words of prayer〞and I looked up as I prayed, to the footstool of the Lord. But it is in vain to contend: the malice of the wicked will triumph, and Edith Holgrave, who even in thought never harmed one of God's creatures, must be sacrificed to cover the guilt, or hide the thoughtlessness of another." "Aye, Sir Treasurer, thou hast reason to sink thy head! Thy odious poll-tax has mingled vengeance〞nay, blood〞with the cry of the bond." HoME嘉珨撰禱え轎煤夤艘 ENTER NUMBET 0017
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